Ecologically based agriculture benefits earthworms in Argentina’s large-scale systems: farm-level strategies matter

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On the left, the ecological habit of geophagous earthworms commonly found in agricultural soils of the Argentine Pampas. On the right, a typical young alfalfa pasture with cattle grazing in a large-scale, ecologically based agricultural system. Photocredit: A. Domínguez

Conventional agriculture expansion and intensification are among the main causes of land degradation and soil biodiversity losses worldwide. Developing more sustainable approaches poses major challenges in large-scale agriculture, as it is the case in the Argentine Pampas, one of the largest agricultural regions in the world. Among soil biota, earthworms regulate soil organic matter dynamics, soil structure formation and maintenance, and create a habitat for numerous organisms, making them especially useful for assessing agricultural performance in terms of preserving soil biological processes. However, earthworm communities in ecologically based agricultural systems have been seldom studied in the region, and the role of farm-scale factors in shaping these communities remains even less understood. Thus, our aims were (1) to assess the effect of three different systems: large-scale ecologically based agriculture, large-scale conventional agriculture, and natural grasslands, on earthworm community attributes and composition; and (2) to understand which variables at the farm scale, related to management strategies and to regional and soil conditions, mostly shape earthworm communities in agricultural soils. We sampled earthworms in 54 sites representing the three systems. We characterized farms in terms of management practices and regional and soil conditions. We observed that ecologically based agriculture increased earthworm abundance, biomass and richness compared to conventional agriculture. However, geographic location played a more significant role in determining species identity than the system. Decreasing crop proportion and increasing non-cropped areas at the farm scale were the most important management practices positively affecting earthworms. This is one of the few studies in the Argentine Pampas to show that ecologically based, large-scale agriculture effectively benefits earthworm communities, and the first to identify how farm-scale factors influence them—particularly mixed farming and the maintenance of non-cropped areas within farms. We believe these findings offer strong encouragement for large-scale farmers to adopt more sustainable practices.

Escudero, H.J., Domínguez, A., Rodríguez, M.P. et al. Ecologically based agriculture benefits earthworms in Argentina’s large-scale systems: farm-level strategies matter. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 50 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01044-z

Adapting the Indigenous Three Sisters system to modern row cropping practices

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Illustration of the traditional ways of planting Three Sisters crops together in a small area. Photocredit: Ying Chen.

The Indigenous companion planting technique known as the Three Sisters system improves soil health, weed control, and crop yields by combining mutually beneficial crops. However, existing research focuses on small-scale gardening, while modern agriculture’s reliance on large land and machinery makes the traditional garden-based approach impractical. This study is the first to explore the adaptation of the Three Sisters system to modern row-cropping practices. Two-year field experiments were conducted in Manitoba, Canada. The Three Sisters crops, sweet corn (Zea mays L.), pole bean, and summer squash, were grown under four planting modes: corn monoculture, corn with bean companion, corn with bean and squash companion, and squash monoculture. Key measurements included soil moisture content, leaf area index, crop yield components, and soil nitrogen levels. Results showed that companion plots with two or three crops generally had lower soil moisture compared to monocultures, with squash monoculture plots retaining the most soil moisture. Among the companion plots, similar soil moisture levels indicated corn as the dominant water consumer. The leaf area index of squash monoculture plots increased rapidly in mid-season, with plots containing squash achieving the highest indices later in the season. Bean contributions to leaf area index were minimal due to corn canopy dominance during early growth stages and squash canopy dominance later. Monoculture plots produced higher individual crop yields, whereas companion planting offered greater produce diversity and a higher total yield of combined crops. The timing of bean planting had inconclusive effects on corn yields but consistently improved bean yields when delayed. Companion plots with three crops exhibited lower residual soil nitrogen, suggesting potential water quality benefits. This study offers guidance on adapting the traditional Three Sisters system to modern row-cropping practices, presenting a sustainable approach that balances agricultural productivity with ecological and human health benefits.

Guo, J., Mooney, H., Wu, P. et al. Adapting the Indigenous Three Sisters system to modern row cropping practices. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 47 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01041-2

Sustainable grass cover management of vineyards enhances pesticide sorption

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Common ground cover management of vineyards in the Mediterranean area. a The continuous grassed inter-rows (GIR) pattern, b the continuous frequently tilled inter-rows (TIR) pattern, and c the most frequent pattern consisting of an alternation of GIR and TIR. Photocredits: J. Dollinger.

Vine is one of the most treated crops. In the Mediterranean area, vineyards are vulnerable to runoff and erosion, both vectors of pesticide dispersion. The substantial pesticide use along with acute dispersal risk threatens the surrounding water bodies. Pesticide sorption contributes to regulate their dispersal. Identifying sustainable management practices enhancing sorption is key to improve water quality. Vineyard cover cropping regulates runoff and erosion. Yet its influence on the sorption of contrasted pesticides and its variability remains to be characterized. Accordingly, this study evaluated the effects of grass cover management on the sorption of widely used pesticides. The study site was a catchment in Southern France, part of a long-term observatory, where grass cover has been monitored for the past 20 years. Topsoil was sampled from the vine rows and inter-rows of 23 vineyards. These vineyards had diverse soils, slopes, and grass cover rates. The adsorption coefficient of the soils was measured for two herbicides, glyphosate and napropamide, and a fungicide, difenoconazole. This study highlights the heterogeneity in cover cropping strategies. Spontaneous cover cropping dominated, and the most popular pattern was to alternate frequently tilled inter-rows and grassed inter-rows. For most of the vineyards, the rows and the tilled inter-rows had low-medium grass cover rate (0–50%). The majority of the grassed inter-rows had high grass cover rate (50–75%). The sorption coefficients of napropamide, difenoconazole, and glyphosate were similar for the vine rows and tilled inter-rows and significantly greater in grassed inter-rows. This was related to an increase of soil organic carbon from the low to high grass cover class. Other catchment characteristics did not affect pesticide sorption. This is the first study evaluating the influence of vineyard cover cropping on the sorption of pesticides at the catchment scale, and it shows that it is an efficient lever to enhance it.

Dollinger, J., Dagès, C., Vinatier, F. et al. Sustainable grass cover management of vineyards enhances pesticide sorption. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 44 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01039-w

Applying green manure and zeolite and reducing N fertilization in maize mitigates N2O emission while maintaining yield

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Planting pattern of the spatial arrangement of monoculture maize (a) and maize intercropped with green manure (b) systems. Maize monoculture system at the jointing (V9) stage (c). Maize intercropped with common vetch at the seedling stage (d). Chamber setup in maize and inter-row space/common vetch row, respectively (c and d). All photographs by the authors.

Green manure is widely employed to substitute chemical N fertilizer. However, the potential of further alleviating N2O emission when combined with efficient management technologies has not been fully explored. To reduce this research gap, a 2-year field experiment was conducted in northwestern China. The aim was to investigate the impact of zeolite application on N2O emission in the maize-common vetch intercropping system under 30% N reduction, as well as the possible mechanisms. The experiment included two cropping systems, namely monoculture maize and maize-common vetch intercropping, along with three amendment practices, namely conventional N, 70% conventional N, and zeolite application under 70% conventional N. Compared with monoculture maize under conventional N, maize-green manure intercropping combined with zeolite application under 70% chemical N achieved comparable yields. Simultaneously, this practice reduced cumulative N2O and yield-scaled N2O emissions by 36.9% and 39.2%, respectively. This reduction can be attributed to a decrease in soil ammonium-N by 20.9%–57.7%, nitrate-N by 47.7%–51.3%, nitrate reductase activities by 25.3%–34.4% and N2O-producer (i.e., nirS and nirK) abundance by 17.3%–79.4% in denitrification, and an increase in the N2O-reducer (i.e., nosZ) abundance by 40.0%–103.4%. Compared with 100% N input, 70% chemical N treatment reduced ammonium-N by 22.3%–41.0%, nitrate-N by 25.4%–41.0%, and N2O-producer abundance by 17.1%–35.0% in denitrification. Zeolite application reduced denitrifying enzyme activities by 8.2%–12.9%, N2O-producer abundance by 42.5%–56.4%, but increased N2O-reducer abundance by 13.3%–23.3% in denitrification. PLS-PM analysis showed that N2O emission mitigation was mainly related to reduced soil ammonium-N and nitrate-N, decreased N2O-producer abundance, and increased N2O-reducer abundance in denitrification. These findings provide new insights into the fact that intercropping green manure combined with zeolite application effectively mitigates N2O emission by regulating mineral N, N-cycling enzymes, and denitrifier abundances while maintaining maize yield after cutting 30% N input.

Liu, R., Chang, D., Liang, H. et al. Applying green manure and zeolite and reducing N fertilization in maize mitigates N2O emission while maintaining yield. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 43 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01033-2

Understand farmers’decision-making in peanut area allocation and management practices in a Sub-Sahelian region

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Some typical scenes of peanut cultivation in the study area, from June to November 2018, at the Niakhar observatory (IRD), Senegal. a Peanut sowing, b weeding, c some components of the agroecosystem, d threshing operations, e winnowing to separate pods and fodder, f peanut transporting after harvest Photocredit: Sophie Djiba.

Peanut is a crucial cash crop across numerous West African countries, especially in Senegal, where small-scale family farms frequently rotate it with millet. Despite significant research on yield enhancement, the drivers behind farmers’ choices have been largely ignored. Recognizing that effective agricultural recommendations must be tailored to the specific context of individual farms, this study aimed for the first time, to understand the decision-making of peanut farmers in a typical rainfed region of the central-western Senegalese peanut basin. We surveyed 46 farmers, gathering data on their resources, perceptions, peanut area allocation, and management practices, as well as socio-economic outcomes. High-peanut farmers, with an average of 28% of their cultivated area allocated to peanut, had more resources than low-peanut farmers, which allocated only 3%. The former enhanced their peanut management by employing farm-saved seeds, hiring labor, and utilizing both manure and synthetic fertilizers. Their average peanut unshelled grain yield (625 kg ha−1) was the highest, although largely under the achievable yield. Their return on investment, which included the value of their own consumption, was also the highest (974%). Medium-peanut farmers presented intermediate characteristics. A widespread high level of self-consumption and investment in watermelon as a new cash crop suggested weak market opportunities for peanut. Low-peanut farmers identified lack of equipment and finance as major constraints, while high-peanut farmers cited lack of finance and quality seeds. All categories recognized peanut’s ecological advantages. These results highlight that limited peanut cultivation and unsustainable practices do not stem from farmers lacking technical knowledge or undervaluing peanut advantages but rather from the socio-economic constraints they face. Solutions for high-peanut farmers may not suit or be adopted by low-peanut farmers. Addressing this disparity requires multi-faceted research and innovations targeting both external and internal farm constraints, shifting from mere inputs provision to co-designing innovations directly with farmers.

Djiba, S., Clermont-Dauphin, C., Tounkara, A. et al. Understand farmers’decision-making in peanut area allocation and management practices in a Sub-Sahelian region. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 40 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01032-3

Yield gaps in soybean: causes and pathways for increasing yield in smallholder farming from Northeast China

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Soybean fields of experimental site (d), surrounding farm (e), and smallholder (f) in Nenjiang county. Photocredit: J.C. Zhao.

A relevant pathway to meet future food production targets involves closing existing yield gaps, i.e., the difference between yields in researcher-managed trials and smallholder fields, through the adoption of technology. However, despite the availability of more productive and sustainable technologies, adoption remains low, and yield gaps persist. Understanding why smallholders fail to achieve high yields and how their productivity can be improved is crucial. To answer these issues, the soybean cropping system of Northeast China was selected as a case study. This is the first time that a generalizable framework that integrates crop modelling, long-term experimental data, statistics, and field surveys is proposed to map soybean yield gaps under various spatial scales (commercial farms, county, prefecture, and surveyed smallholders) and explain underlying causes. Pathways to bridge yield gaps are discussed. Compared with yield of researcher-managed experimental plots, soybean yields decreased from the farm to the county and again to the prefecture levels. At farm level, the yield gap was 0.34 t/ha, at county level 1.03 t/ha, and at prefecture level 1.17 t/ha. In the same order, a technical efficiency index decreased from 0.91 to 0.64. Poor agronomic management contributed to 73–86% of yield gap, followed by climate (26–13%) and soil constraints (less than 1%). Survey data showed that ridge planting pattern, the use of single compound fertilizers, and variety selection were the most important manageable variables affecting smallholder soybean yield. Using large-ridge cultivation and a rational application of fertilizers were critical for smallholders to achieve high yields. These findings suggest that bridging yield gaps in smallholder farming in the Northeast China remain a significant opportunity to improve food production. This study provides detailed information for closing yield gaps in smallholder fields. The framework is also applicable in other regions dominated by smallholder agriculture to develop sustainable intensification of production.

Zhao, J., Zhao, M., Huang, Z. et al. Yield gaps in soybean: causes and pathways for increasing yield in smallholder farming from Northeast China. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 37 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01030-5

Optimizing planting density for enhanced maize yield and resource use efficiency in China. A meta-analysis

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A maize planting density experiment conducted at Yulin, Shaanxi Province, China. There were two different planting densities on both sides of the black dotted line. The purpose was to explore the effects of different planting densities on maize yield and yield components. Photo credit: Xiaoliang Qin.

Reasoned increases in planting density are key measures to enhance maize yields. However, most existing studies on maize planting density based on long time spans often fail to account for diverse microclimates. The impact of planting density on yield components has not also been well investigated in major production regions of China. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis of 1951 data pairs from 160 published papers (2013–2023) to assess the effects of increasing planting density on maize yield, yield components, phenotypic traits, and resource utilization and to determine optimal density increase ranges for different environments. The results showed that increasing planting density improved the leaf area index by 23.4%, plant height by 1.8%, aboveground dry matter accumulation by 15.9%, water use efficiency by 3.8%, nitrogen use efficiency and 34.2%, and grain yield by 10.0–11.0%. Dense planting also increased the maize ear number per area by 34.3% but decreased grain number per ear by 12.5%, 1000-grain weight by 7.2%, and harvest index by 2.4%. Notably, the density increase range emerged as the primary factor influencing yield and its components, with changes in grain number per ear the most significant contributor to yield variations. A 25–50% density increase range was identified as optimal, resulting in an 11.5–13.4% yield increase. Average local planting densities were 63,496 plants·ha–1 in the Northwest, 58,928 plants·ha–1 in the Huang-Huai-Hai region, 58,234 plants·ha–1 in the Northeast, and 51,761 plants·ha–1 in the Southwest. Here, we show for the first time that the optimal density increase range varied by region: 25–50% for the Northeast, >50% for the Huang-Huai-Hai and Southwest, and 0–25% for the Northwest. These findings highlight the importance of tailoring planting density to local conditions, offering a scientific basis for optimizing maize production across diverse regions in China.

Zhang, M., Zhao, X., Han, X. et al. Optimizing planting density for enhanced maize yield and resource use efficiency in China. A meta-analysis. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 29 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01027-0

Modelling the impact of nitrification inhibition in a fallow-based West African corn cropping system

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https://media.springernature.com/full/springer-static/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs13593-025-01026-1/MediaObjects/13593_2025_1026_Fig1_HTML.jpg?as=webp
Corn field near Lamto reserve in Ivory Coast. It is managed with traditional practices (without pesticide, without fertilizer, without tillage, after slash-and-burn). Photocredit: Sébastien Barot.

To solve soil fertility problems, most smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa use fallow periods. However, population growth along with land shortage tends to shorten the duration of fallows, resulting in a steady decline in soil fertility. Although nitrogen (N) plays a key role in soil fertility, current methods for maintaining N supply in cropping systems are inadequate, especially in N poor soils. Addressing this issue is crucial for improving agricultural productivity and reducing environmental impact. The objective of this study was to explore innovative ways to maintain N supply in N poor soils by identifying the appropriate levers and practices. We designed a general model describing N cycle in a cropping system in a humid savanna in Ivory Coast. We examined the impact of different processes involved in N cycle, including mineralization, nitrification, and fallow characteristics on the yield of a crop such as corn. Our study innovatively assesses the benefits of incorporating nitrification inhibition into traditional African cropping systems and provides a modelling tool to assess its impact. The model confirms that in low input agricultural systems, soil fertility is maintained by the increase in soil organic matter during fallow and its subsequent mineralization. We showed that variation in nitrification during the cropping cycle (fallow-crop) does not have a significant effect on corn yield. However, with the addition of N fertilizers, nitrification inhibition significantly increases crop yield. Indeed, nitrification inhibition increases the efficiency of fertilizer use, which reduces losses of N fertilizer. Furthermore, legume-based fallow is able to increase corn productivity much more than a nitrification-inhibiting fallow regardless of the length of fallow periods. Finally, the models suggest that using nitrification-inhibiting grasses as cover crops for corn would be beneficial if mineral N fertilizer is used.

Ouattara, W.A., Konaré, S., Tondoh, E.J. et al. Modelling the impact of nitrification inhibition in a fallow-based West African corn cropping system. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 28 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01026-1

Emergence of invasive weedy rice in Southeast Asia. A review

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A boy with some pink-awned wild rice in the family’s rice field in Ayutthaya, Central Thailand (A), and a rice landscape with mixed population of cultivated, wild, and weedy rice at the same location (B). Photocredit: Chanya Maneechote.

This review seeks to describe the complete set of circumstances leading to the sudden invasiveness of weedy rice in Southeast Asia. The main finding is that weedy rice, like its wild ancestor, the common wild rice, is likely endemic to deepwater rice areas in Southeast Asia. Its recent ecological success in the wider region is based primarily on introgression of photoperiod insensitive trait from modern rice varieties. This has resulted in the removal of reproductive control by daylength in weedy rice, which broadens its adaptive capacity and increases hybridization opportunities. The paddy field environment favorable to weedy rice is created by modern crop management practices—from land preparation to direct seeding, combine harvesting, and chemical weed control. The arrival of modern rice technology at the end of the twentieth century has brought economic and social benefits to Southeast Asia, and also an unintended harm to rice production with invasive weedy rice. Weedy rice control should benefit from a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms driving its sudden invasiveness and spread.

Jamjod, S., Maneechote, C., Pusadee, T. et al. Emergence of invasive weedy rice in Southeast Asia. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 23 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01018-1

Cultivar mixtures increase stability and productivity over time through asynchrony and complementarity

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Field experiment conducted in the southern suburbs, Zhangye City, Gansu Province, Northwest China. Photocredit: Long Li.

In a seven-year field experiment, we found that maize cultivar mixtures increased grain yields and stabilized year-to-year yields over time, which was attributed to increased asynchrony and complementarity among cultivars, differences in functional traits, and plasticity in response to neighbors. These mechanisms provide new insight into how intraspecific diversity increases both natural and agricultural ecosystem functioning.

 

 

Su, Y., Zhang, WP., Zhao, JH. et al. Cultivar mixtures increase stability and productivity over time through asynchrony and complementarity. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 45, 20 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-025-01014-5